Vol. 15 No. 1 (2024)
Studies

The Origin of Misogyny in the Patriarchal Society: Psychodynamic and Cultural Considerations

PDF (Magyar)
Gabriella Judith Kengyel
egyetemi tanársegéd, Pázmány Péter Katolikus Egyetem Bölcsészet- és Társadalomtudományi Kar
Hungarian
pszichológus, Alkohol- és Drogsegély Ambulancia, Veszprém
Hungarian
pszichológus, Questionardo Ltd., London
Hungarian
pszichiáter, pszichoterapeuta, Rózsakert Medical Center, Budapest
DOI: https://doi.org/10.61177/HISZ.2024.15.1.8

Published 28-06-2024

Keywords

  • misogyny,
  • psychoanalysis,
  • sexism,
  • partiarchy,
  • philosophy

Copyright (c) 2024 Kengyel Judith Gabriella, Mircse Andrea, Kántás Éva Magdolna, Treuer Tamás

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Abstract

Nowadays, alongside with the slow disintegration of the patriarchal society, prejudices against women and fears about them are increasing, and at the same time hateful remarks are becoming more common in public discourse and in relationships. The authors present a cultural historical overview to discover the origins of misogyny and, in this context, the social reactions to the four waves of feminism. They also provide an overview of how early psychoanalytic theories nourished men’s fear of women and how one-sided the concept of femininity was in early psychoanalysis, as well as how it is still present in theoretical texts today. How could Freud be so wrong about women when he was the one who was able to create a universal understanding and lay the foundations of personality functioning, psychopathology and treatment relying on a sensitive introspection of his own and others' emotional difficulties? How could Ferenczi, who is today considered an early forerunner of intersubjectivity, have also such a wrong opinion about women? In the article, the authors also point out the role of transgenerational microtraumas of social psychological and individual developmental psychological processes in the persistence of misogyny. According to the authors' hypothesis, the recurrence of individual microtraumas over generations and their psychodynamic relations to each other make the fight against misogyny very difficult.

PDF (Magyar)

References

  1. Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1977): 'Social learning theory (Vol. 1)', Prentice Hall: Englewood cliffs.
  2. Bateson, G., Jackson, DD., Haley, J., Weakland. J. (1956): 'Toward a Theory of Schizophrenia', Behavioral Science 1(4), 251-264. o. https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830010402
  3. Bereczkei T. (2008): 'Evolúciós pszichológia', Budapest: Osiris.
  4. Bosson, J. K., & Michniewicz, K. S. (2013): 'Gender dichotomization at the level of ingroup identity: what it is, and why men use it more than women', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(3), 425. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033126
  5. Brogan, D., & Kutner, N. G. (1976): 'Measuring Sex-Role Orientation: A Normative Approach', Journal of Marriage and Family, 38(1), 31–40. o. https://doi.org/10.2307/350548
  6. Borgos A. (2017): 'Pszichoanalitikus elméletek nőiségképe Freudtól a feminista pszichoanalízisig', In: Társadalmi nemek. Elméleti megközelítések és kutatási eredmények. Budapest: ELTE Eötvös Kiadó, 21-37. o.
  7. Byung-Chul Han (2015): 'The Burnout Society' Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  8. Cabeza, M. F., Johnson, J. B., & Tyner, L. J. (2011): 'Glass ceiling and maternity leave as important contributors to the gender wage gap', Southern Journal of Business and Ethics, 3, 73-85. o.
  9. Carlson, D. L., & Knoester, C. (2011): 'Family structure and the intergenerational transmission of gender ideology', Journal of Family Issues, 32(6), 709–734. o. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X10396662
  10. Csabai M. & Erős F. (1997, szerk.): 'Freud titokzatos tárgya. Pszichoanalízis és női szexualitás', Budapest: Új Mandátum.
  11. Chalmers, J., Petterson, A., Woodford, L., & Sutton, R. M. (2022): 'The Rights of Man: Libertarian Concern for Men's, But Not Women's, Reproductive Autonomy', Political Psychology, 44(3), 603-625. o. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12867
  12. Chang, W. (2020): 'The monstrous-feminine in the incel imagination: Investigating the representation of women as “femoids” on /r/Braincels', Feminist Media Studies, 22(2), 254-270. o. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2020.1804976
  13. Cooper, M. (2021): 'The alt-right: Neoliberalism, libertarianism and the fascist temptation', Theory, Culture & Society, 38(6), 29-50. o. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276421999446
  14. Colaner, C. W. & Rittenour, C. E. (2015): ' “Feminism Begins at Home”: The Influence of Mother Gender Socialization on Daughter Career and Motherhood Aspirations as Channeled Through Daughter Feminist Identification', Communication Quarterly, 63(1), 81-98. o. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2014.965839
  15. Connell, R. W. (1995): 'Masculinities', Berkeley: University of California Press.
  16. Connor, R. A., Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2017): 'Ambivalent sexism in the twenty-first century', In C. G. Sibley & F. K. Barlow (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of the psychology of prejudice, 295–320. o. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316161579.013
  17. Cunningham, M. (2001): 'The influence of parental attitudes and behaviors on children’s attitudes toward gender and household labor in early adulthood', Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 111-122. o. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00111.x
  18. Davis, S. N. (2006): 'Gender ideology construction from adolescence to young adulthood', Social Science Research, 36(3), 1021-1041. o. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2006.08.001
  19. Davis, S. N., & Wills, J. B. (2010): 'Adolescent gender ideology socialization: Direct and moderating effects of fathers' beliefs', Sociological Spectrum, 30(5), 580–604. o. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2010.496106
  20. Dhar, D., Jain, T., & Jayachandran, S. (2019): 'Intergenerational transmission of gender attitudes: Evidence from India', The Journal of Development Studies, 55(12), 2572-2592. o. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2018.1520214
  21. Drolet, J. F., & Williams, M. C. (2020): 'America first: paleoconservatism and the ideological struggle for the American right', Journal of Political Ideologies, 25(1), 28-50. o. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569317.2020.1699717
  22. Eagly, A.H. (1987): 'Sex Differences in Social Behavior: A Social-role Interpretation', Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  23. Ex, C. T. G. M.,; Janssens, J. M. A. M. (1998): 'Maternal influences on daughters; gender role attitudes', Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 38(3-4), 171–186. o. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018776931419
  24. Enyedi I. 'Weininger Otto előadása a bécsi egyetemen- filmes rekonstrukció: Az én XX századom', (Enyedi Ildikó, 1989, filmrészlet) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kDqstZ5_59k
  25. Ferenczi S. (1900): 'A nők fiziológiás gyengeelméjűségéről- recenzió: J. P. Möbius, „Über den physiologischen Schwachsinn des Weibes" ', Gyógyászat, 40(31), 491-492. o.
  26. Fodor É., & Balogh A. (2010): 'Back to the kitchen? Gender role attitudes in 13 East European countries', Zeitschrift für Familienforschung, 22(3), 289-307. o. https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-259
  27. Fordham, G., & Penh, P. (2006): 'As If They Were Watching My Body', Pornography and the Development of Attitudes Towards Sex and Sexual Behavior Among Cambodian Youth. Phnom Penh, Cambodia: World Vision.
  28. Fowers, A. F. & Fowers, B. J. (2010): 'Social dominance and sexual self-schema as moderators of sexist reactions to female subtypes', Sex Roles 62, 468-480. o. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9607-7
  29. Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997): 'Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks', Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173-206. o. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
  30. Freud, S. ([1933] 1999): 'A nőiség', In: Freud: Újabb előadások a lélekelemzésről. Budapest: Filum. 126–151. o.
  31. Friston, K.J., Stephan, K.E., Montague, R. & Dolan, R.J. (2014): 'Computational psychiatry: the brain as a phantastic organ', The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(2), 148–158. o. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70275-5
  32. Gera D., & Halmosi D. (2023): 'Gender equality in Hungarian workplaces', Lexology.
  33. Glace, A. M., Dover, T. L., & Zatkin, J. G. (2021): 'Taking the black pill: An empirical analysis of the “Incel”', Psychology of Men & Masculinities, 22(2),288–297. o. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000328
  34. Glick, P. & Fiske, S. T. (1996): 'The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491–512. o. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491
  35. Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., et al. (2000): 'Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 763-775. o. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.763
  36. Glick, P., Fiske, S. T. (2006): 'Ambivalens szövetség. Az ellenséges és a jóindulatú szexizmus mint a nemi egyenlőtlenség egymást kiegészítő igazolása', In: Hamilton, D.L., Fiske, S.T., Bargh, J.A.: A társak és a társadalom megismerése. Budapest: Osiris, 389-414. o.
  37. Gloch, K. (2006): 'Nietzsche - a nőkről - A szövegeket válogatta és kommentálta Klaus Goch', Budapest: Holnap Kiadó
  38. Grunau, K., Bieselt, H. E., Gul, P., & Kupfer, T. R. (2022): 'Unwanted celibacy is associated with misogynistic attitudes even after controlling for personality', Personality and Individual Differences, 199, 111860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111860
  39. Halme, M. (2023): 'First Five', Series, Netflix.
  40. Hartup, W. W. (1962): 'Some correlates of parental imitation in young children', Child Development, 33(1), 85-96. https://doi.org/10.2307/1126635
  41. Hughes, C., Bolis, M., Fries, R., & Finigan, S. (2015): 'Women's economic inequality and domestic violence: exploring the links and empowering women' Gender & Development, 23(2), 279-297. o. https://doi.10.1080/13552074.2015.1053216
  42. Jaki, S., De Smedt, T., Gwóźdź, M., Panchal, R., Rossa, A., & De Pauw, G. (2019): 'Online hatred of women in the Incels.me forum', Journal Of Language Aggression And Conflict, 7(2), 240-268. o. https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00026.jak
  43. Johnson, C. A. (2022): The Relationship between Paid Maternity Leave and the Gender Wage Gap: A Country-Level Analysis', Washington: Georgetown University.
  44. Johnson, S. (2014): 'Perfectionism, the thin ideal, and disordered eating: Does internalized misogyny play a role?' [Doctoral dissertation], Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma. https://hdl.handle.net/11244/8107
  45. Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994): 'The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness', British Journal of Social Psychology, 33(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.x
  46. Kapusi K. (2008): "Róza mama" - Ferenczi Sándor édesanyjáról', Thalassa, 19(3), 84-90. o.
  47. Kántás É. M. (2022): 'A nők tekintélyszerepeihez való viszonyulás a szexuális orientáció és a szexista hiedelmek tükrében', Alkalmazott Pszichológia, 22(3), 35-56. o. https://doi.org/10.17627/ALKPSZICH.2022.3.35
  48. Kántás É. M. & Kovacs M. (2022): The role of sexual orientation and the perceived threat posed by men in the acceptance of sexism. Acta Psychologica, 230. 103749, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103749
  49. Kengyel J. G., Gál E., & Nagy K. A. (2023): 'Ha férfi vagy, légy férfi? A férfias viselkedés és nemi szerepek narratív mintázatai', Társadalmi Nemek Tudománya Interdiszciplináris eFolyóirat, 12(2), 22–45. o. https://doi.org/10.14232/tntef.2022.2.22-45
  50. Kozma L., & Kocsor F. (2018): 'Elvárások és azonosulás: a férfi nemi szerep többszempontú vizsgálata', Társadalmi Nemek Tudománya Interdiszciplináris eFolyóirat, 8(2), 39-65. o. https://ojs.bibl.u-szeged.hu/index.php/tntef/article/view/33853
  51. Kulik, L. (2002): 'Like-sex versus opposite-sex effects in transmission of gender role ideology from parents to adolescents in Israel', Journal of Youth and adolescence, 31(6), 451-457. o. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020263120774
  52. Martínez, P., Nazif-Munoz, J. I., Rojas, G., & Magaña, I. (2022): 'Structural gender inequalities and symptoms of postpartum depression in 40 countries', Journal of Affective Disorders, 297, 381-385. o. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.10.014
  53. Maxwell, D., Robinson, S. R., Williams, J. R., & Keaton, C. (2020): ' “A short story of a lonely guy”: a qualitative thematic analysis of involuntary celibacy using reddit', Sexuality & Culture, 24(6), 1852-1874. o. https://doi.10.1007/s12119-020-09724-6
  54. Meier, H. C. (1972): 'Mother-Centeredness and College Youths’ Attitudes toward Social Equality for Women: Some Empirical Findings', Journal of Marriage and Family, 34(1), 115–121. o.
  55. Mészáros J. (2022, szerk): 'Ferenczi a pszichoanalízis felé – preanalitikus írások (1897-1908)', Budapest: Oriold Kiadó.
  56. Miller, G. (2006): 'A párválasztó agy', Budapest: Typotex.
  57. Min, J., Silverstein, M., & Lendon, J. P. (2012): 'Intergenerational transmission of values over the family life course', Advances in Life Course Research, 17(3), 112-120. o. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2012.05.001
  58. Moen, P., Erickson, M. A., & Dempster-McClain, D. (1997): 'Their Mother’s Daughters? The Intergenerational Transmission of Gender Attitudes in a World of Changing Roles', Journal of Marriage and Family, 59(2), 281–293. o. https:doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2307/353470
  59. Moya-Garófano, A., Moya, M., Megías, J. L., & Rodríguez-Bailón, R. (2022): 'Ambivalent sexism and women’s reactions to stranger harassment: The case of piropos in Spain', Psychology of Women Quarterly, 46(4), 454-467. o. https://doi.org/10.1177/03616843221115339
  60. N. Kollár K. & Szabó É. (2004): 'A nemi identitás és a társadalmi nemi szerepek kialakulása', In N. Kollár K. & Szabó É. (szerk.) Pszichológia pedagógusoknak. 500–502. o. Budapest: Osiris Kiadó
  61. O’Neil, J.M. (1982): 'Gender-Role Conflict and Strain in Men’s Lives', In: Solomon, K., Levy, N.B. (eds) Men in Transition. Boston MA: Springer.. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-4211-3_2
  62. Perales, F., Hoffmann, H., King, T., Vidal, S., & Baxter, J. (2021): 'Mothers, fathers and the intergenerational transmission of gender ideology' Social Science Research, 99, 102597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102597
  63. Piggot, M. (2004): 'Double jeopardy: Lesbians and the legacy of multiple stigmatized identities', Psychology Strand at Swinburne University of Technology, Australia: Unpublished thesis.
  64. Pikó B., & Keresztes N. (2007): 'Serdülők egészségmagatartása két szociális megküzdési (coping) mechanizmus tükrében', Magyar Pszichológiai Szemle, 62(2), 203-214. o.
  65. Platt, L., & Polavieja, J. (2016): 'Saying and Doing Gender: Intergenerational Transmission of Attitudes towards the Sexual Division of Labour', European Sociological Review, 32(6), 820–834. o. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcw037
  66. Pongrácz T. (2005): 'Nemi szerepek társadalmi megítélése. Egy nemzetközi összehasonlító vizsgálat tapasztalatai', In: Nagy Ildikó–Pongrácz Tiborné–Tóth István György (szerk.): Szerepváltozások. Jelentés a nők és férfiak helyzetéről. Budapest: TÁRKI–ICSSZEM, 73-86. o.
  67. Rippon, G. (2019): 'The Gendered Brain: The new neuroscience that shatters the myth of the female brain', London: Penguin Random House.
  68. Rippon, G. (2020): Tedx Talk: 'A Gendered World makes a Gendered Brain', Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2s1hrHppl5E
  69. Roith, E. (1987): 'The Riddle of Freud: Jewish Influences on His Theory of Female Sexuality', London: Routledge Publishing.
  70. Rutai L. (2023): 'In Hungary, Politics Is Mainly A Man's Game', Retrieved from https://www.rferl.org/a/hungary-politics-women-man-s-game/32401814.html
  71. Scaptura, M. N., & Boyle, K. M. (2020): 'Masculinity threat, “incel” traits, and violent fantasies among heterosexual men in the United States', Feminist criminology, 15(3), 278-298. o. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085119896415
  72. Sharrow, E. A., Rhodes, J. H., Nteta, T. M., & Greenlee, J. S. (2018): 'The first-daughter effect: The impact of fathering daughters on men's preferences for gender-equality policies', Public Opinion Quarterly, 82(3), 493–523. o. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfy037
  73. Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F (1999): 'Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  74. Sróka T. (2022): 'Nemi ideológiák generációs átvitele', In: Kengyel, J. G. (szerk.). NEM egyenlő – Nemi alapú egyenlőtlenségek Magyarországon, 149-174. o. Budapest: Oriold és Társai.
  75. Swim, J. K., & Hyers, L. L. (2009): 'Sexism', In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination, 407–430. o. New York: Psychology Press.
  76. Szabó M. (2008): 'A társadalmi nemekkel kapcsolatos dinamikus nézetrendszerek szociálpszichológiai vizsgálata: Ideológiák és sztereotípiák, nemi tipizáltság és társas identitás', Doktori (Phd) disszertáció. Budapest: ELTE Pszichológiai Doktori Iskola.
  77. Szarka V., Faragó L., & Kengyel J. G. (2022): 'A közéleti szexizmus elfogadásának háttere', In: Kengyel, J. G. (szerk.). NEM egyenlő – Nemi alapú egyenlőtlenségek Magyarországon. 265-294. o. Budapest: Oriold és Társai.
  78. Szymanski, D. M., Gupta, A., Carr, E. R., & Stewart, D. (2009): 'Internalized misogyny as a moderator of the link between sexist events and women’s psychological distress', Sex Roles, 61(1-2), 101-109. o. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9611-y
  79. Tenenbaum, H. R., & Leaper, C. (2002): 'Are parents' gender schemas related to their children's gender-related cognitions? A meta-analysis', Developmental Psychology, 38(4), 615-630. o. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.4.615
  80. West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987): 'Doing gender', Gender & society, 1(2), 125-151. o. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243287001002002
  81. Weininger, O. (1913): 'Nem és jellem', ford. Gábor Andor, Budapest: Dick Manó kiadó.
  82. Wight, V. R. (2008): 'The intergenerational transmission of gender-role attitudes and behavior: how do parents matter?' Doktori disszertáció, Washington: University of Maryland, College Park.
  83. Winnicott, D. W. (1953): 'Transitional objects and transitional phenomena'. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 34, 89–97. o.
  84. Wirth J., & Winkler Zs. (2015): 'NŐK ELLENI ERŐSZAK az adatok tükrében. FRA-népesség-bűnügyi statisztikák', NANE.
  85. World Health Organisation (31 January, 2023): 'Female genital mutilation' [Női genitális csonkítás]. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation
  86. Wraga, M., Helt, M., Jacobs, E. & Sullivan, K. (2007): 'Neural basis of stereotype-induced shifts in women's mental rotation performance', Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2(1), 12–19. o. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsl041
  87. Žižek, S. (1989): The Sublime Object of Ideology. London, New York: Verso.
  88. Žižek, S. (1994): The Metastases of Enjoyment: six essays on women and causality. New York: Verso .
  89. Žižek, S. (1997): The Plague of Fantasies. London, New York: Verso